2021-11-18

Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.; Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.; Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.

The coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), at first, was reported in Wuhan, China, and then rapidly became pandemic throughout the world. Cytokine storm syndrome (CSS) in COVID-19 patients is associated with high levels of cytokines and chemokines that cause multiple organ failure, systemic inflammation, and hemodynamic instabilities. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), a common complication of COVID-19, is a consequence of cytokine storm. In this regard, several drugs have been being investigated to suppress this inflammatory condition. Purinergic signaling receptors comprising of P1 adenosine and P2 purinoceptors play a critical role in inflammation. Therefore, activation or inhibition of some subtypes of these kinds of receptors is most likely to be beneficial to attenuate cytokine storm. This article summarizes suggested therapeutic drugs with potential anti-inflammatory effects through purinergic receptors.

2021-09-29

Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Industrial Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.; Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Gene Expression and Gene Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.; Laboratory of Neuronal Cell Signaling, EBRI Rita Levi-Montalcini Foundation, Rome, 00161, Italy; Department of Biotechnology and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L'Aquila, 67100, L'Aquila, Italy.; Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran.; Department of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran.; FUJIFILM Cellular Dynamics, Inc., Madison, WI, USA. Electronic address: ali.fathi@fujifilm.com.; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Maragheh, Maragheh, Iran. Electronic address: kakaei@maragheh.ac.ir.

Several factors ranging from environmental risks to the genetics of the virus and that of the hosts, affect the spread of COVID-19. The impact of physicochemical variables on virus vitality and spread should be taken into account in experimental and clinical studies. Another avenue to explore is the effect of diet and its interaction with the immune system on SARS-CoV-2 infection and mortality rate. Past year have witnessed extensive studies on virus and pathophysiology of the COVID-19 disease and the cellular mechanisms of virus spreading. However, our knowledge has not reached a level where we plan an efficient therapeutic approach to prevent the virus entry to the cells or decreasing the spreading and morbidity in severe cases of disease. The risk of infection directly correlates with the control of virus spreading via droplets and aerosol transmission, as well as patient immune system response. A key goal in virus restriction and transmission rate is to understand the

Renal Division, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.; John B. Little Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.; New Iberia Research Center, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, New Iberia, Louisiana, USA.; Tropical and Communicable Diseases Research Centre, Iranshahr University of Medical Sciences, Iranshahr, Iran.; Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.; Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity, Universal Scientific Education and Research Network, Tehran, Iran.; Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.; Department of Neurology, Neuroscience Institute, Geisinger Health System, Danville, Pennsylvania, USA.; Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA.

Since the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), our understanding regarding the pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of this disease have been improving. However, we still have limited data on long-term effects and lingering symptoms of post COVID-19 recovery. Despite predilection of COVID-19 for lungs, multiple extra-pulmonary manifestations appear in multiple organs and biological systems and with continued infection and recovery worldwide. It is necessary that clinicians provide patients with previous SARS-CoV-2 infection with expectations of long-term effects during or after recovery from COVID-19. Herein, we review the long-term impact of COVID-19 on different organ systems reported from different clinical studies. Understanding risk factors and signs and symptoms of long-term consequences after recovery from COVID-19 will allow for proper follow-up and management of the disease post recovery.CI